Microbiological & Immunological Communications
Microbiological & Immunological Communications is a Biannual, peer-reviewed, open-access journal published online, that includes studies investigating all aspects of the relationships between infectious agents (bacteria, viruses, fungi, etc.) and hosts. Clinical studies and investigations carried out at organismal, organ, and tissue levels can be submitted to this journal, however, studies exploring cellular and molecular mechanisms are encouraged. Animal studies investigating molecular aspects of disease prevention, diagnosis, pathogenesis, and treatment, especially targeting their immunological aspects using in vitro, in vivo, and in silico tools, are also welcomed. The journal also publishes research in mycology and parasitology.
Antimicrobial Peptides from Plants: Structural Diversity, Modes of Action, and Antimicrobial Potential
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as one of the most prominent global public health crises of the 21st century. As traditional antibiotics face declining efficacy against multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens, plant antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have gained significant attention as potent, multi-targeted alternatives. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the major plant AMP families, including thionins, defensins, lipid transfer proteins (LTPs), hevein-like peptides, snakins, and cyclotides. These peptides are defined by their small size, cationic nature, and cysteine-rich scaffolds stabilized by complex disulfide bond networks. The structure–activity relationships (SARs) that govern their function, specifically the roles of cationicity, amphipathicity, and glycosylation in pathogen discrimination. The review also provides insights of the multifaceted mechanisms of action employed by plant AMPs, ranging from physical membrane disruption to the sequestration of cell wall precursors and the interference with intracellular metabolic processes, including transcription and translation. The review also discusses the current challenges in clinical translation of use of AMPs, such as metabolic instability and host toxicity, and highlights the role of emerging technologies such as AI-driven design, nanoparticle-based delivery systems, and combinatorial therapies in accelerating the development of plant-inspired AMPs as next-generation tools for sustainable infectious disease management.
Copyright (c) 2025 Aroosa Maqsood, Masooma https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Resistance Mechanisms in Various Bacteria Against DNA Gyrase Inhibitors: A Concise Review
DNA gyrase, a bacterial type 2 isomerase is a critical enzyme to maintain DNA supercoiling during replication and transcription. DNA gyrase inhibitors have been widely used to treat serious infections, bearing great importance in clinical settings. Multiple inhibitors, including fluoroquinolones (FQs) and other gyrase inhibitors stabilizes the DNA-enzyme cleavage complex and halt DNA re-ligation. The widespread use of these inhibitors in the form of antibiotics introduces antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Emerging evidence indicates that resistance to DNA gyrase inhibitors is driven by a dynamic interplay of genetic mutations, adaptive cellular responses, and mobile genetic elements (MGEs). Across Gram-negative and Gram-positive pathogens, as well as in acid-fast bacteria, distinct yet overlapping molecular strategies have evolved to reduce drug susceptibility and promote survival under antimicrobial pressure. These bacterial species are adapted to act mechanistically, hence becoming resistant to the antibiotics. This review explores the molecular basis of resistance to DNA gyrase inhibitors in clinically significant bacterial pathogens, highlighting how evolutionary adaptation and selective pressure continue to reshape the landscape of antibacterial therapy. Understanding these processes is crucial for informing future treatment strategies and mitigating the growing threat of resistant infections.
Copyright (c) 2025 Saniya Sabir, Ayesha Nadeem https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Mycobiome–Brain Interactions: Emerging Role of Gut Fungi in Neurodegeneration
Neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's, are increasingly linked to disruptions in the gut-brain axis. While most research is focusing on bacterial microbiota, the gut mycobiome, or fungal population of the gastrointestinal tract, has emerged as a potentially essential but understudied contributor to neurological health. Gut fungi interact with human immunology, metabolic processes, and microbial networks, and an imbalance (fungal dysbiosis) can cause systemic inflammation, blood-brain barrier disruption, and neuroinflammatory reactions. Microglial activation, oxidative stress, and neuronal damage can be influenced by fungal metabolites and cell wall components, indicating ways in which the mycobiome may contribute to neurodegeneration. Patients with multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and several mental disorders have been shown to have altered fungal profiles, suggesting potential involvement in the course of the disease and the severity of its symptoms. The complexity of gut microbial control of brain function is further highlighted by interactions between fungal and bacterial communities. This review summarizes current evidence on gut mycobiome composition, mechanisms of mycobiome–brain communication, and associations with neurodegenerative diseases. Understanding these interactions may reveal novel biomarkers and therapeutic targets, emphasizing the need for longitudinal studies and mycobiome-focused interventions to clarify the clinical significance of gut fungi in neurodegeneration.
Copyright (c) 2025 Mahnoor Hayat, Noor Ul Huda Khola https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Distribution of IFNG and IFNGR1 Genotypes among HCV-Infected Pakistani Patients: A Case–Control Study
Hepatitis C virus infection is a significant health concern that leads to serious liver-related complications such as liver cirrhosis (LC) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The immunoregulatory cytokines, interferon gamma (INFG) and interferon gamma receptor-1 (IFNGR1), genes play vital role in viral infections outcomes. The current study aimed to determine the genetic distribution of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP), in IFNG and IFNGR1 genes in HCV positive patients. A cross-sectional study was carried on total of 190 subjects, including 30 Sustained Virological Responder (SVR), 80 HCV positive patients and 80 healthy controls. The RNA and DNA were extracted; PCR was carried out for HCV detection and genotyping. The in-house PCR was used for amplification of Intron-1 and Promoter of INF-γ, and IFN-γR1, while sequencing was performed through Sanger’s method. The prevalence of TT, AT and AA genotypes of IFNG at +874 was (0.40), (0.33) and (0.27) in SVR, (0.20), (0.55) and (0.25) in HCV positive patients, while (0.45), (0.39) and (0.15) in healthy control respectively (p < 0.001).The frequency of the AT genotype was high in HCV positive patients (0.55) while the TT was significantly high in SVR (0.40) and in healthy control (0.45) (p < 0.0001). The frequency of TT, TC, and CC genotypes of IFNGR1 gene at -56 was (0.27), (0.43), and (0.30) in SVR, (0.29), (0.48) and (0.24) in HCV positive patients, while (0.39), (0.20) and (0.40) in healthy individuals respectively (p = 0.008). The TC genotype was significantly high in SVR (0.43), and (0.48) in HCV positive patients while the CC was more prevalent in healthy control (0.41). It is concluded that the AT and AA genotypes of the IFNG and the TC genotype of the IFNGR1 were more prevalent in HCV-positive patients, while the TT genotype of the IFNG and the CC genotype of the IFNGR1 were highly prevalent in SVR and in healthy individuals. This suggests that certain genetic variations may influence susceptibility to HCV infection and affect treatment outcomes.
Copyright (c) 2025 Khair Rafiq, Sanaullah Khan, Muhaamad Bar Khan, Muhammad Yaqoob https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Management of Infectious Diseases in Family Medicine Clinics: A Case Study from Rural Punjab, Pakistan
Infectious diseases remain a major public health concern in rural Punjab, Pakistan, where limited infrastructure, inadequate training of healthcare providers, and low patient awareness hinder effective management. This study aimed to evaluate the determinants of infectious disease management in family medicine clinics across rural Punjab, focusing on infrastructure readiness, service provider capacity, prescribing practices, and community awareness. A mixed-methods case study design was employed across 15 family medicine clinics in three rural districts of Punjab. Quantitative data were collected from 150 healthcare providers (physicians, nurses, paramedics) and 375 patients using facility assessments, provider surveys, prescription audits, and patient exit interviews. Multiple regression analysis was conducted to examine predictors of rational prescribing, diagnostic accuracy, and treatment adherence. Qualitative data from key informant interviews with district health officers provided contextual insights. Only 42% of clinics were equipped with complete infection prevention and control kits, while 35% had functional diagnostic tools. Provider training coverage remained low (38%), with inappropriate antibiotic prescribing reported in 40% of cases. Regression analysis revealed that provider training and guideline access significantly predicted rational antibiotic prescribing (β = 0.46, p < .01). Infrastructure availability was associated with improved diagnostic accuracy (β = 0.41, p < .05), and community health education strongly predicted treatment adherence (β = 0.52, p < .01). We concluded that strengthening service provider training, improving infrastructure readiness, and enhancing community health education are critical to improving infectious disease management in rural Punjab. Integrated interventions addressing these determinants can reduce inappropriate prescribing, improve diagnostic accuracy, and enhance treatment adherence in rural healthcare settings.
Copyright (c) 2025 Sheeba Zafar, Rehana Ali Shah, Muhammad Kashif Khan, Aiman Alam https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Distribution of Inteleukin-6 Promoter Genetic Variants Among Toxoplasma gondii-Infected Pakistani Women
Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a multifunctional cytokine that plays a key role in infection control and pregnancy maintenance. IL-6 genetic variability affects the pregnancy outcome and susceptibility to Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) infection. This study aims to investigate the prevalence of IL-6 promoter polymorphisms in T. gondii-infected women. This study included 163 reproductive-age women, including 83 T. gondii-infected women and 80 control women. The blood and placental tissue samples were collected from participants. The DNA was extracted and amplified for T. gondii DNA and IL-6 gene promoter polymorphisms. The amplified IL-6 DNA was sequenced through Sanger's sequencing method. The -174 G/C, -373 AnTn Tract, -572 G/C, and -597 G/A polymorphisms were detected in the IL-6 gene promoter. The distribution of the CC genotype (0.49) in antibodies and DNA-positive women, the GG genotype in antibodies-positive and DNA-negative (0.47) and control women (0.56) at -174G/C SNP was significantly high (p=0.005). The GG genotype at -572G/C SNP was insignificantly (P=0.143) high in antibodies and DNA-positive (0.44), antibody-positive and DNA-negative (0.42), and control women (0.54). The frequency distributions of the AA genotype (0.42) in antibodies and DNA-positive, the GG genotype in antibodies-positive and DNA-negative (0.38), and control women (0.60) at -597G/A SNP were significantly high (P=0.0012). Frequencies of the A10T11/A10T11 (0.28) and the A9T11/A9T11 (0.27) genotypes in infected women, and the A8T12/A10T10 and the A10T10/A10T10 genotypes in control women (0.20 each) were significantly high (P<0.001). It is concluded that the frequency distributions of IL-6 genotypes at -174G/C, -597G/A, and -373 AnTn SNPs are significantly variable in T. gondii-infected women.
Copyright (c) 2025 Muhammad Bar Khan, Sanaullah Khan, Khair Rafiq, Muhammad Yaqoob https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
A Cross-sectional Study on Burden of Human Malaria Infection at Pir Abdul Qadir Shah Jeelani Institute of Medical Sciences, Gambat, Pakistan
Malaria is a major public health problem caused by Plasmodium species and is spread naturally through the bite of the female Anopheles mosquito. This study was conducted at Pir Abdul Qadir Shah Jeelani Institute of Medical Sciences, Gambat, Pakistan to determine the prevalence of malaria with respect to age, sex, and month-wise distribution. Primary and secondary data were collected during August to September 2023 and from January 2022 to July 2023, respectively. The primary dataset included 200 suspected malaria cases, while secondary data comprised records of 970 individuals, later they were sorted out for positive and negative cases. Diagnosis of malaria was performed using microscopic examination and rapid diagnostic tests. The results obtained showed that (40%) patients were positive for the malarial parasite with 40% prevalence rate. The study population revealed that male (52%) had a higher prevalence of malarial infection as compared to females (28%). The Plasmodium vivax was found 36.5% in the positive cases, while Plasmodium falciparum was 3.5%. The P. vivax in females was 89.2% and P. falciparum was 10.7%. According to results of primary data, distribution of malaria cases was found with high percentage of 44% in August compared to September with 36%. In different age groups, the age group from 1-10 years was found to be most prevalent group with the cases of 71%, the 5.3 ± 2.01 years was the average age. In the age group of 31 and above years the lowest prevalence of malaria, 32.43% was found with 34.91 ± 2.6 years of average age. The secondary data showed that female population 45.45% was more prevalent to malaria in November 2022 and the male population was more prevalent in May 2022 with 46.87%. While in 2023 the highest cases with 19.04% of female population were found in the month of March and in January maximum cases of male population were observed with 28.20%. The current work concludes that male population was more infected 52% as compared to female population 28%. The 1-10 year age group was the most prevalent, accounting for 71%. In present study the P. vivax was found to be dominant species compared to P. falciparum.
Copyright (c) 2025 Sahiba Noor Hussain, Tahira Batool, Ruksar Kiran, Sapna Waheed, Taskeen Waheed, Khadim Hussain Memon https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Antifungal Susceptibility Testing Against Aspergillus flavus with Herbal Extracts and Synthetic Antifungals
The globally distributed pathogenic fungus Aspergillus flavus poses a threat to both animal and human health. While synthetic antifungals have shown promise in controlling this fungus, their overuse has unfortunately led to a critical problem: the development of multidrug resistance, along with various other negative consequences. Therefore, alternative therapy is mandatory. This research sought to investigate the potential of herbal extracts, known for their antifungal properties, to serve as a complementary treatment to synthetic antifungals against A. flavus. Antifungal susceptibility tests were employed to evaluate this possibility. To isolate and identify A. flavus, fifty poultry feed samples underwent conventional culture methods and microscopic examination. Subsequently, the antifungal potential of five synthetic drugs (fluconazole, itraconazole, amphotericin B, nystatin, voriconazole) and eight herbal extracts (black seed, ginger, oregano, onion, turmeric, garlic, cinnamon, basil) was evaluated through disc diffusion assays and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) determination. Statistical analysis revealed voriconazole as the most effectual synthetic antifungal due to its highest zone of inhibition (39.53 ± 0.72) and lowest MIC value (0.12 ± 0). Hence, garlic amongst all herbs proved the best natural remedy with the highest inhibition zone value (25.83 ± 0.24) and lowest MIC score (0.66 ± 0.16) as per Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute. Although synthetic antifungals gave better results than herbal extracts due to inconsistent, high financial exchange rates and lethal chemical residues, most of them are considered unsafe for humans. On the contrary, conventional complementary therapy, including herbal extracts, is harmless, affordable, eco-friendly, and has a lack of residual effects. Thus, more surveillance and research for the application of natural remedies are a supreme necessity.
Copyright (c) 2025 Shajeela Iram, Rafiq Khanani, Johar Hussain, Mehmood ul Hassan, Mehir un Nisa Iqbal, Tabinda Khawaja https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Comparative Analysis of Virulence Factors and Antibiotic Resistance in Enterococci Isolated from Fruits and Vegetables
Enterococci are a variety of Gram-positive cocci that live in a variety of environments, such as food, plants, and gastrointestinal tracts (GI). Hospital-acquired multidrug resistance is on an upward trajectory. The increasing number of reports of Enterococcus strains linked to bloodstream infections, endocarditis, and urinary tract infections highlights the critical need for surveillance and research on antimicrobial resistance (AMR). While multidrug resistance refers to resistance to various antibiotic classes, which complicates therapy and raises the chance of clinical failure, antibiotic resistance is the ability of bacteria to resist the toxic effects of drugs that previously killed them. With a focus on virulence factors and AMR profiles, this study examines the occurrence and characteristics of Enterococcus strains in various environments. As 48 samples of raw vegetables and fruits were examined, 46 of them tested positive for Enterococci (93%), indicating a high tolerance to salt and variation in gelatinase activity (32.6%). Each isolate had the ability to hydrolyze esculin, and the tube adherence test method verified that biofilm development was seen in 56.5% samples. The surface morphology of biofilm-positive cells which are adhered to solid surfaces and form multicellular aggregates packed into extracellular matrix material and biofilm-negative cells which lack matrix material, were shown by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Antibiotic resistance patterns differed; vegetable-associated Enterococci showed significant resistance to Ampicillin (20.7%) and Erythromycin (17.2%), while fruit-associated Enterococci showed concerning resistance to Linezolid and Vancomycin (35.3%). In order to assure food safety and public health, this study emphasizes the various characteristics of Enterococcus isolates and stresses the significance of surveillance and treatment with antibiotics for environmental Enterococcus strains.
Copyright (c) 2025 Hafiza Sana Parveen Soomro, Zulfiqar Ali Mirani, Ifra Shamim, Sajida Parveen Soomro, Tanveer Abbas https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Molecular Detection and Characterization of Virulence Genes in Escherichia coli Isolated from Drinking Water and Raw Food Sources
Poor hygiene results in elevated levels of bacterial contamination in drinking water and raw food. Escherichia coli (E. coli) is one good indicator that shows the level of contamination in community water supply. E. coli harbor pathogenic and antibiotic resistance genes that can result in morbidity. The aim of the study is to assess the pathogenicity and antibiotic resistance prevailing in water and food samples collected from Kohat. Twenty samples were collected and subjected to various tests, including biochemical assays and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to identify E. coli. Antibiogram assays were performed using Kirby disc diffusion method. PCR was employed to identify virulence genes Shiga toxin 1 and 2 (Stx1 and Stx2). 70% of samples were found to have bacteria in them, and the most common were E. coli and other Enterobacteriaceae. Additional testing of E. coli-positive samples confirmed positive Triple Sugar Iron (TSI) results but negative citrate and urease tests. Antibiotic susceptibility testing revealed that most of the bacteria strains are resistant to penicillin, ampicillin, ceftazidime, and cefixime, while some samples showed susceptibility to amoxicillin plus clavulanic acid, cefoxitin, cefepime, cefoperazone + sulbactam, levofloxacin, ceftriaxone, ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin, azithromycin, and doxycycline as per Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) standards. Three of the isolates were subjected to PCR for the detection of STX1 and STX2 genes confirming the presence of the Stx2 gene in the two E. coli isolates, while Stx1 was absent. Sequence analysis of Stx2 gene showed >98% identity with GenBank sequences. Finally, our comprehensive study confirmed that E. coli is harmful in raw food and drinking water. Phylogenetic analysis, virulence factor discovery, antibiotic resistance profiling, and more help us identify E. coli contamination. This highlights the need for cleanliness and wastewater management.
Copyright (c) 2025 Tahira Abdul Hadi, Malak Shujaa, Farmanullah, Sajid Hussain, Humaira Mazhar, Muhammad Abbas, Fawad Ali https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Antibacterial Activity of Bacteriophages and Extracts of Caesalpinia decapetala and Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana Against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus
The emergence of antimicrobial resistance is one of the burning issues mankind faces. The discovery of new antibiotics has declined significantly, and existing antibiotics are often ineffective against many MDR bacterial strains. Aqueous extracts of Caesalpinia decapetala and Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana were prepared in this study. Phytochemical analysis and antibacterial activity of extracts at a concentration of 6000µg/ml were examined against two multi-drug-resistant (MDR) bacterial species, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. Spot assay was done to assess the lytic activity of bacteriophages against the MDR strains. The synergistic effect of extracts and bacteriophages was examined using a mixture of specific concentrations of extract and bacteriophages. Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of different phytochemicals in the root and stem extract of the plants including phenols, phlobatanins, coumarins, glycosides, and terpenoids. The well-diffusion assay revealed that the stem extract of C. decapetala demonstrated the highest activity against P. aeruginosa (PA2) with a 13mm zone of inhibition (ZOI), followed by P. jacquemontiana with an 11.5mm ZOI. In contrast, the lowest activity (9.7mm ZOI) was exhibited by the root extract of C. decapetala against S. aureus. The synergistic study demonstrated that the stem extracts of both P. jacquemontiana and C. decapetala exhibit inhibitory activity against the bacteriophages. The combined application of plant extract and bacteriophage against selected MDR strains led to a 60-70% reduction in the zone of inhibition compared to their individual effects, suggesting a strong antagonistic interaction.
Copyright (c) 2024 Muhammad Yousuf, Hina Farooq, Qadeer Shah https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Chagas Disease: Navigating the Complexity of Host Immune Responses to Trypanosoma cruzi
Trypanosoma cruzi is the source of the persistent systemic infection known as Chagas disease. There are various stages in its life cycle for both host mammals and vector insects. Along with regional variations in morbidity and mortality, distinct clinical presentations of Chagas disease are caused by distinct strains of Trypanosoma cruzi. The cytokine interferon-gamma is initially produced by natural killer cells during the early stages of T.cruzi infection. Cytokines secreted by phagocytes stimulate other defense-related cells and promote inflammation. In response to T. cruzi, B lymphocytes initiate an efficient humoral immune response, whereas dendritic cells, monocytes, and macrophages regulate the adaptive immunological response. This review includes several studies that address the primary immune mechanisms involved in T.cruzi infection, pathogen approaches against host cells, inflammasome, and virulence factor processes, and novel approaches to disease prevention, control, and treatment.
Copyright (c) 2024 asmat nawaz https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Exploration of Antimicrobial Activity and Antioxidant Potential of Loranthus cordifolius Plants From Mirpur Azad Kashmir, Pakistan
Loranthus cordifolius is a parasitic plant, and its extracts are traditionally used in some cultures as antimicrobial and immunological medicines. Literature suggests that bioactive compounds produced by a parasitic plant could potentially be influenced by the host plant's own chemical composition, playing a role in the adaptogenic properties of the parasitic plant. In the present research, L. cordifolius shrubs were collected from host species Phyllanthus emblica and Juglans regia, and extracts were obtained using chloroform, petroleum ether, methanol, and water. The phytochemical profile, encompassing alkaloids, flavonoids, cardiac glycosides, tannins, terpenoids, and saponins, was qualitatively and quantitatively assessed, revealing varying concentrations based on solvents and hosts. Extracts from L. cordifolius, particularly those from the P. emblica host, showed superior antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. Notably, leaf extracts from L. cordifolius (Host P. emblica) exhibited effective results, including minimum inhibitory effect, Minimum Bactericidal Concentration, and Minimum Fungicidal Concentration. Activity indices were highest for extracts derived from the P. emblica host. Stem extracts from L. cordifolius plants (Host P. emblica) demonstrated higher DPPH scavenging effect, total antioxidant activity, and total phenolic contents. The study concludes that Loranthus cordifolius exhibits notable antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, suggesting its promising potential as a natural source for developing green medicines and alternative therapeutic agents.
Copyright (c) 2024 Muhammad Waqas Mazhar, Muhammad Ishtiaq, Mehwish Maqbool, Mubsher Mazher, Waheeda Mushtaq, Adnan Shahid, Faisal Iqbal Jafri , Tanveer Hussain https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Evaluation and Sequencing of 16S rRNA Gene for Molecular Identification of Prevalent Salmonella Strains Isolated from Food and Water
Salmonella is a leading cause of intestinal illnesses globally and is also responsible for severe systemic diseases such as typhoid and paratyphoid fevers, often transmitted through contaminated food. Understanding the prevalence and genetic diversity of Salmonella is essential to addressing its public health impact. This study investigates the prevalence and genetic diversity of Salmonella strains in food and water samples from Karachi, with a focus on the 16S rRNA gene for phylogenetic analysis and the InvA gene as a virulence marker. A total of 110 food and water samples were analyzed using microbiological assays, PCR, gene sequencing, and phylogenetic grouping. The 16S rRNA gene, known for its evolutionary stability, was employed to identify bacterial species and trace phylogenetic relationships. The InvA gene, a key virulence factor, was detected to assess pathogenic potential. Gene sequencing and phylogenetic analysis were conducted using MEGA-X software to construct a Maximum Likelihood phylogenetic tree incorporating newly sequenced and reference strains. The study identified Salmonella isolates and revealed their evolutionary relationships and geographic origins. The phylogenetic analysis demonstrated genetic diversity among the isolates, highlighting their potential public health implications. The findings provide valuable insights into the genetic diversity of Salmonella in food and water samples from Karachi. These results underline the importance of molecular surveillance in understanding Salmonella evolution and controlling its public health impact.
Copyright (c) 2024 Urooba, Ramsha Soomro, Noor ul Huda, Fouzia Zeeshan, Shaista Urooj, Muhammad Naseem Khan, Tanveer Abbas, Zulfiqar Ali Mirani https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Prevalence and Distribution of Oral Submucous Fibrosis Occurrence Among Schoolchildren in Karachi, Pakistan
Oral submucous fibrosis (OSF) is a chronic, progressive disease characterized by fibrosis of the oral mucosa, leading to restricted mouth opening and potentially malignant transformation. While traditionally more prevalent among adults in South Asian countries, recent studies have shown an alarming increase in OSF cases among children, particularly in urban areas like Karachi, Pakistan. This study was approved by the ethical committee board of Dow University of Health Sciences, Karachi. The aim was to assess the geographical distribution of OSF cases among school-going children in Karachi, Pakistan, and identify potential risk factors associated with the disease. A cross-sectional study was conducted among school-going children aged 5-16 years in Karachi. A stratified random sampling technique was used to select schools from different geographical regions of the city. After verbal and written consent from students and school authorities, children were examined for clinical signs of OSF, including reduced mouth opening, palpable fibrous bands, and mucosal stiffness. Demographic data, dietary habits, oral hygiene practices, and exposure to risk factors such as areca nut and tobacco use were recorded through a structured questionnaire. An alarming prevalence of 0.7% of OSF was found among small children which is unexpected for a disease that is potentially malignant and previously found only in adults. The most affected areas in Karachi were Saddar and Liaqatabad town. Government school children were mostly affected. This study concluded that the prevalence of OSF was high in the group of schoolchildren and the sale of commercial preparation of areca nut may play a part in this increase. The town-wise pathology split shows the area of Gadap and Liaqatabad town should be targeted for intervention strategies followed by other towns in Karachi. This is crucial for effective public health interventions aimed at reducing the burden of this potentially debilitating disease among school-going children in Karachi.
Copyright (c) 2024 Marium Zaheer, Anwar Ali https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Bacterial Morphology and Microscopic Advancements: Navigating from Basics to Breakthroughs
Bacterial morphology is critical in determining how these ubiquitous organisms function and behave. This study delved into the intriguing world of bacterial morphologies, offering thorough research regarding microorganisms' variable shapes and structures. It sheds light on the distinct traits and functions associated with their morphologies. Initially, the study highlighted the most common bacterial morphologies, ranging from the traditional rod and cocci to more complex patterns, including spirals, helices, and flat-wave structures. Each morphology revealed the structural traits that separate one from another. Moreover, a particular focus was placed on emerging advancements in the field, from conventional to recent advances in microscopic technologies that provided unique insights into microbial architecture. Furthermore, the review emphasized the importance of bacterial surface appendages, including flagella and pili, influencing microbial behavior and interactions. For instance, the corkscrew-like motion of helical bacteria is investigated in motility, emphasizing its importance in the survival and adaptability of specific species. Furthermore, in the realm of microscopic technologies, various options exist. However, recent literature revealed that scanning electron microscopy (SEM), field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) stand out as the most advanced microscopic techniques. Specifically, advancements such as super-resolution microscopy techniques, including structured illumination microscopy (SIM) and stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM), have revolutionized our understanding of pathogenesis and drug delivery. In conclusion, this review strengthens our understanding of bacterial morphologies while emphasizing the importance of taking a more diverse approach to investigating microbial structures. The combination of traditional knowledge and cutting-edge microscopy opens up new possibilities for discovery, promising a better understanding of bacterial shape and its consequences in scientific and medical fields.
Copyright (c) 2024 Jahanzeb, Tan Tian Swee, Sameen Malik, Syafiqah Saidin, Chua Lee Suan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Exploring the Strategies to Combat Antimicrobial Resistance in ESKAPE Pathogens; A Comprehensive Review
Antimicrobial resistance is a huge challenge for the global health system, bringing about massive mortalities throughout the world. On the landscape of infectious diseases, the ESKAPE (Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter species) organisms have emerged as grave threats, leading to millions of life-threatening infections. These pathogens have developed numerous mechanisms of resistance against conventional antibiotic agents such as penicillins, cephalosporins, glycopeptides, etc. The prospective research is pursuing novel methodologies for combating antimicrobial resistance in ESKAPE bacteria. This review depicts strategies other than conventional antibiotic agents to tackle the rising tendencies of antimicrobial resistance in ESKAPE pathogens. Many in vitro and in vivo studies have established the effectiveness of phage therapy and endolysins in countering the dominance of ESKAPE pathogens. Antimicrobial peptides, photodynamic therapy with mesoporous nanoparticles, and some other strategies have also demonstrated their potency to kill ESKAPE bacteria. Despite their fruitfulness, many challenges and limitations are also associated with these approaches. This review aims to summarize the progress and advancement in countering the antimicrobial resistance in ESKAPE pathogens. This review also recommends conducting further research to better understand the technicalities of these strategies and to further refine them to compose these methods as promising options for antimicrobial therapy against ESKAPE pathogens.
Copyright (c) 2024 Laraib Badar, Ahsan Ibrahim https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Sero-Surveillance of Measles Virus Seropositivity Amongst Vaccinated Children of Rural Areas of Sindh, Pakistan
Measles remains a serious public health concern worldwide, and outbreaks persist despite large vaccination campaigns, particularly in low-income areas. This study seeks to contribute to the existing body of information by analyzing antibody levels in vaccinated newborns, determining the durability of protection, and identifying potential vaccination gaps. Understanding the measles seroprevalence in this specific area is critical in order to optimize vaccination strategies and ensure the continuous protection of vulnerable people in rural Sindh, Pakistan. Serum samples were collected from 173 children using standard sample collection protocol. Measles-specific IgG antibodies were quantified using enzyme-linked immune sorbent assay (ELISA) at the Department of Microbiology Dow Diagnostic Research and Reference Laboratory (DDRRL). The study recruited children with an average age of 41.3 months, evenly split between males (n=88) and females (n=81), all vaccinated as per their parents' records. The measles IgG antibodies seropositivity ratio in children among the vaccinated population was 53 (30.6%), and seronegative 120 (69.4%) out of 173. The study revealed alarming rates of measles susceptibility among vaccinated children in Pakistan, despite analyzing various factors, including demographics and socio-economic status, no significant associations with measles susceptibility were found. These findings emphasize the need for improved vaccination strategies to address deficiencies in immunity levels and mitigate the risk of measles outbreaks in the region.
Copyright (c) 2024 Zeb Hussain, Ambreen Fatima, Muhammad Sameer Qureshi, Asif Iqbal Khan, Shaheen Sharafat https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Illuminating Biofilm Formation and Pathogen Persistence in Household Refrigerators: Evidence from Karachi, Pakistan
In the modern household, refrigerators play a central role in preserving food freshness. However, the microbial landscape within these appliances, particularly the formation of biofilms, remains a significant concern for food safety and hygiene. This study investigated biofilm formation in household refrigerator environments to understand the potential risks associated with microorganisms and their implications for food safety. The study was conducted by examining a total of 80 refrigerators of residents of Karachi, over a 15-day period. employing rigorous methodologies to assess optical density (OD), Colony Forming Units (CFU/cm²), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) to uncover bacterial species' abilities to develop biofilms. Results revealed that 12 out of the 80 slides displayed positive biofilm formation based on both OD and CFU criteria. Strong biofilm producers encompassed Acinetobacter, Listeria, P. aeruginosa, E. coli, Bacillus, Salmonella, and others. Notably, P. aeruginosa was a common component across different biofilm categories. In vitro studies on individual isolates further confirmed biofilm-forming capabilities. P. aeruginosa isolates exhibited strong biofilm formation, while E. coli isolates displayed weak capabilities. Enterococci isolates generally formed weak to moderate biofilms. In summary, our study reveals the prevalence of biofilm formation in household refrigerators, with significant microbial risks posed by species like P. aeruginosa. These findings underscore the importance of stringent hygiene practices for ensuring food safety at home.
Copyright (c) 2024 Rimsha Soomro, Shaista Urooj, Zulfiqar Ali Mirani, Noor-ul-Huda, Shagufta Naz, Ameer Ahmed Mirbahar, Anila Sidiqui, Asadullah Khoshhall, Mohammad Naseem Khan, Abdul Basit Khan, Tahira Soomro, Yasir Raza https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Lactobacillus Rhamnosus & Lactobacillus Salivarius Modulate Planktonic and Biofilm State of Cariogenic Streptococcus Mutans
Streptococcus mutans is one of the early colonizers of the oral cavity and contributes to dental caries and decays. Therefore, any intervention that reduces their number in the oral cavity is considered helpful in reducing dental infections. Probiotics confer health benefits and several studies highlighted their curative effects in the oral cavity. In this study, the antimicrobial and biofilm inhibiting potential of Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Lactobacillus salivarius in co-culture with cariogenic bacterium S. mutans was evaluated. S. mutans formed significant biofilm both in the presence and absence of sucrose with OD > 3-4 at 48h and 72h. On the contrary, L. rhamnosus and L. salivarius made weak biofilm as compared to S. mutans. Both the Lactobacillus strains significantly reduced the bacterial load up to 4-5 folds with 70 – 80% biofilm formation of S. mutans in co-culture experiments. The cell-free supernatant of both the Lactobacillus strains also reduced the biofilm formation and bacterial load. Propidium monoazide (PMA) assays also showed a significant reduction of S. mutans count when co-cultured with L. rhamnosus and L. salivarius. Gene expression analysis showed the downregulation of the quorum sensing (LuxS) gene when co-cultured with the Lactobacillus strains. We conclude that L. rhamnosus and L. salivarius can be used to control cariogenic bacteria i.e., S. mutans.
Copyright (c) 2023 Microbiological & Immunological Communications https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Evaluating Fluoxetine's Growth-Inhibitory Impact on Clinical Isolates of Enteric Bacteria: Harnessing Repurposing Potential
The over-the-counter use and imprudent utilization of antibiotics in recent times have led to the emergence of microbial resistance. This has given rise to an alarming situation, prompting researchers to explore novel strategies for managing infections induced by antibiotic-resistant species. However, the process of drug discovery is time-consuming and expensive, which makes it a challenging endeavor. In recent years, drug repurposing has gained significant attention as an alternative strategy. Notably, several antidepressants have piqued interest as potential candidates for repositioning as antibiotics. Thus, the present study was aimed at investigating the anti-bacterial potential of different classes of antidepressants i.e., fluoxetine, venlafaxine, and phenelzine in clinical isolates of Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes, Enterococcus faecalis, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus mirabilis, Salmonella typhi, Shigella dysenteriae, and Staphylococcus aureus. The strains were cultivated on Mueller Hinton agar, with the aforementioned antidepressants or conventional antibiotics. Following a 24-hour incubation period, the extent of growth inhibition was assessed by measuring the zone of inhibition, serving as an indicator of their inhibitory potential. The findings showed that fluoxetine arrested the growth of almost all isolates with maximal effect against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The impact of venlafaxine was exclusively observed in Enterobacter aerogenes, with phenelzine demonstrating complete ineffectiveness in bacterial growth suppression. In conclusion, the current study elucidates the efficacy of fluoxetine in clinical isolates, thereby positioning it as a promising contender for the advancement of novel antimicrobial agents. Additionally, our data raises questions regarding the proposed mechanisms of antibacterial action for selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and challenges the notion of dysbiosis as a potential mode of action for antidepressants.
Search for Natural Remedies for the Treatment of Salmonella Typhi Infections
Typhoid is a major public health threat, particularly in areas lacking access to clean water, proper nutrition, and hygienic practices. The emergence of antibiotic resistance, inaccessibility of vaccines to the global south, and asymptomatic carriers of Salmonella typhi (S. typhi) have made tackling the scourge of typhoid a major challenge. Plant-based antimicrobial compounds have opened a new avenue for effectively managing typhoid by minimizing drug-related side effects and targeting the resistant strains of typhoidal salmonella cost-effectively. This review article contains many such candidates, who can potentially modify the typhoid treatment guidelines like Azadirachta indica, Canarium schweinfurthii-derived scopoletin, and Punic granatum, and those that target the resistant strains of S. typhi, like Amaranthus hybridus, and Quercus infectoria and Phyllanthus emblica. The article will also shed light on the challenges and promises associated with phytocompound extraction and standardization as the researchers navigate the uncharted waters of alternative medicinal sources.
Host Defence and Toxoplasma gondii: A Mini Review
Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite intracellular in nature that affects pregnant animals and humans especially immunocompromised persons. Infected hosts show a robust inherent response followed by an adaptive response to contain the parasitic infection. More focus has recently been placed on innate lymphocytes, inflammatory monocytes, and inherent immunological processes. The operation of MyD88 independent pathways is necessary for these processes to function. Despite the host's immense immune reaction, the parasite has evolved to overcome the host's immune response either by down-regulation of signaling pathways or altering host gene expression. Also, the parasite continues to thrive as a lifelong infection in the infected individuals and may revive to its lethal form in stress conditions.
Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Potential of PEGylated Chitosan-Based Nano-Antibiotics Against Multidrug-Resistant E Coli Strains
Antibiotic resistance is a major public health burden in the contemporary world, imposing high levels of mortality, morbidity, and financial losses annually. Escherichia coli is a widespread food and waterborne pathogen causing severe ailments. In the current study, chitosan (CS) and polyethylene glycol (PEG) based hybrid nanosystems were developed and their intrinsic and synergistic (with antibiotics) antibacterial activity was assessed against multidrug-resistant E. coli strains. Enteropathogenic (EPEC) and enterotoxigenic (ETEC) strains of E. coli exhibited resistance against multiple classes of antibiotics. PEGylated CS nanosystems demonstrated higher encapsulation efficiency for ciprofloxacin (61.3 ± 0.76%), compared to ceftriaxone encapsulation (49.4 ± 0.52%). Scanning electron microscopy revealed a smooth surface and homogenous distribution of void and loaded nanosystems. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) spectra indicated no new chemical bonding and change in functional groups therefore it can be said antibiotics were successfully incorporated into the nanosystems by electrostatic interactions. Growth kinetics and colony forming unit (CFU) assay revealed restored activity of antibiotics encapsulated in hybrid PEGylated CS nano-conjugates against resistant E. coli strains. Furthermore, PEGylated CS hybrid nanosystems with intrinsic activity effectively curbed the biofilm formation in EPEC and ETEC strains. For future biopharmaceutical manufacturing, we propose that PEGylated CS hybrid nanosystems can be a potential therapy against resistant E. coli and biofilm-associated chronic illnesses.
Editor's Summaries of the Articles Published in This Issue of Microbiological & Immunological Communications
In this issue, Shafiq et al. evaluate the serum levels of interleukin (IL)‐2, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)- α, IL-1β, interferons (IFN)-α, IFN-β, IFN-γ, and IL-10 in patients infected with SARS-CoV-2, Akbar and colleagues isolated and identified the infectious agents of dermatophytes related infections in patients, and screened selected natural remedies for their treatment, Urooj et al., assessed the samples of water collected from different dental units placed in different departments of tertiary care dental hospitals in Karachi to evaluate their conditions, Talpur and colleagues isolated and identified coliform bacteria in the drinking water of Shah Abdul Latif University, Campus, Khairpur (Mir’s) Sindh, Pakistan, while Khan and Xin reviewed gut micro biome’s role in the development of the immune system, including oral tolerance and immunity.
The gut microbiota consists of trillions of microorganisms in the digestive tract. It holds immense promise in various aspects of human health and well-being. Our understanding of its full potential is still developing. It has implications for digestive health, mental health and brain function, personalized medicine, immune system regulation, disease prevention and treatment, metabolic health, weight management, and others. Here we highlight some aspects of gut microbiota that have shown significant promise in recent research. Personalized Microbiome Medicine: Researchers have been increasingly focusing on personalized microbiome medicine. This involves understanding how an individual's unique gut microbiota composition can influence their health and disease risk. This understanding could lead to personalized dietary and therapeutic interventions based on a person's microbiome profile. Gut-Brain Axis and Mental Health: The connection between the gut and the brain, known as the gut-brain axis, has gained significant attention. Emerging research suggests that gut microbiota can influence mental health conditions such as anxiety, depression, and neurodegenerative disorders. This has led to exploring novel treatments targeting the gut microbiota to improve mental health outcomes. Microbiota Transplants: Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) has continued to be an area of research interest. FMT involves transferring fecal material from a healthy donor to a recipient's gut to restore a balanced microbial ecosystem. It has shown promise in treating certain gastrointestinal disorders, such as recurrent Clostridium difficile infections, and researchers are also investigating its potential for other conditions. Diet and Microbiota interaction: The impact of diet on the gut microbiota composition and its subsequent influence on health has been a focus of recent research. Studies have demonstrated how different diets, such as high-fiber diets or those rich in certain plant-based foods, can promote the growth of beneficial gut bacteria and contribute to overall well-being. Metagenomics: Advances in metagenomics and sequencing technologies have allowed researchers to study gut microbiota with higher resolution. This has enabled the identification of previously unknown microbial species and functions, leading to a deeper understanding of the complex microbial communities residing in the gut. Microbiota and Immune System: Research has shown that gut microbiota plays a crucial role in regulating the immune system. Dysbiosis, an imbalance in the gut microbiota, has been linked to various autoimmune diseases and allergic conditions. Understanding these interactions could potentially lead to innovative immune-modulating therapies. Metabolic Diseases: There's growing evidence that the gut microbiota is linked to metabolic disorders like obesity, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome. Researchers are studying how specific bacterial species and their metabolites impact metabolism and contribute to these conditions. Synthetic Microbiota and Therapeutics: Scientists are exploring the possibility of designing synthetic microbial communities (synbiotics) to target specific health outcomes. These synthetic communities could be used as therapeutic interventions for various diseases, offering a controlled and tailored approach to manipulating the gut microbiota. The future of gut microbiota research holds exciting possibilities as our understanding of the complex interactions between microbiota and human health continues to deepen. One important area to look for in the future is the application of artificial intelligence tools to gut microbiota. Applying machine learning and artificial intelligence to gut microbiota data will help identify patterns and correlations that traditional analyses may miss. These tools could aid in understanding complex microbial communities and their associations with health and disease.
The Role of Dietary Peptides and the Gut Bacteria in Maintaining Intestinal and Homeostatic Balance
The gut bacteria and the host have a mutually beneficial relationship. This complex interdependence plays a critical role in resource collection via prebiotic carbohydrate breakdown in the intestinal tract, the supply of important nutrients, vitamin synthesis, metabolic operations and maintenance, as well as sheltering against colonization of pathogens, and opportunistic fungal infections. This leads to ‘gut microbiota homeostasis’ or ‘gut microbial equilibrium’, i.e., a stable and healthy gastrointestinal tract microbial community. In this review, we discuss the gut micro biome’s role in the development of the immune system, including oral tolerance and immunity. The therapeutic approach must begin with the interaction of functional foods and enterocytes. Furthermore, we discuss current knowledge and the promising application of functional foods that may stimulate the immune system to perform a further pro- or anti-inflammatory activity in the gastrointestinal system. When evaluating the immune system function of nutraceuticals, designs that modulate the membrane must be used whenever possible. Moreover, nutraceutical products’ claim to be immunity boosters should have valid and accurate data to back it up. While assessing the stimulation of blood cell immunity through functional foods is more useful, it does not accurately reflect physical reality, and an investigation into the colonic immune response is a better way to understand it.
Microbiological Assessment of Dental Unit Water Lines at a Tertiary Care Dental Teaching Hospital in Karachi
The dental practice depends on many factors, including the ample water supply through the plastic tubing system to irrigate the oral cavity's working area. It is used not only with dental materials but also to keep the machinery cool and evade the heat produced while working high-speed rotating instruments. The water is supplied by the tubing system known as the 'dental unit water lines' (DUWL). The main source of DUWL is usually the main supply of municipal water or the bottled water system. There is a high prevalence of microorganisms in this system, and limits have been set to control the spread of infection in dental settings. The formation of biofilm in the luminal surfaces of DUWL is another problem that can lead to the continuous growth of microorganisms inside DUWL. In this study, we assessed the samples of water collected from different dental units placed in different departments of tertiary care dental hospitals in Karachi to evaluate their conditions. The results showed the total viable plate count at 37ºC was positive for all samples. The mean total viable plate count (TVC) at 37° C was >200 colony forming units (CFU)/100 ml for all of the samples. The total coliform was found in 18 samples out of 38 (47.5%). Whereas fecal E. coli and fecal Enterococci/ Streptococci are not found in any sample, Pseudomonas species were found in all samples. The study concluded that strict disinfection practice is mandatory to avoid cross-infection in dental settings.
Levels of Cytokines In SARS-Cov-2 Infected Patients
Cytokine dysregulation is the proposed mechanism for Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). This study aimed to evaluate the serum levels of interleukin (IL)‐2, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)- α, IL-1β, interferons (IFN)-α, IFN-β, IFN-γ, and IL-10 in patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. The study was conducted in 120 adult patients with COVID‐19 and compared with 40 age and gender-matched healthy subjects as controls. The age range in both groups was 18–70 years. The patients were classified into the mild/moderate group (60 patients) and the severe group (60 patients). Serum samples were collected from all participants and tested for cytokine levels by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method. Statistical analysis was performed using the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Serum cytokines in SARS-CoV-2 patients, which indicate the host's immune responses against the coronavirus inflammation, seem different from what has been observed with other viral pathogens. The difference in the serum levels of IL-2, TNF-α, INF-α, INF-β, and IL-10 between the two groups was insignificant. However, higher levels of IL-2, TNF-α, and INF-β are reported in mild COVID-19 patients compared to healthy individuals and severe COVID-19 patients. Varying levels of cytokines were detected in the COVID-19 group than in the control group, suggesting distinct immunoregulatory mechanisms involved in COVID-19 pathogenesis.
Dermatophytes Isolation from Patients and In-vitro Application of Selected Natural Extracts and Oils for Anti-Dermatophytic Activity
Dermatophytosis, commonly known as ringworm, is caused by a group of fungi termed dermatophytes. It can invade the keratinized tissue of the skin, nails, and hair. Dermatophytosis is classified based on the site of infection, such as tinea pedis, tinea capitis, and tinea unguium. This study was performed at Bolan Medical College Hospital, Quetta, to isolate and identify the infectious agents of dermatophytes related infections in patients following all the codal formalities and ethical procedures. A total of 19 patients' samples were analyzed in the study, where ten samples were positive for infectious agents. The organisms were grown on specified media, such as dermatophytes test medium agar and potato dextrose agar, supplemented with antibiotics. The isolates were preliminary identified with the help of their growth on specific media and finally confirmed with the help of compound microscopic examination. Some common natural compounds, such as apple peel extract (APE), grapes peduncle extract (GPE), propolis oil (PO), and bitter apricot kernel oil (BAKO), were used against the dermatophytes isolates and were found positive for activity against a few isolates. The APE showed inhibitory activity of 31% against Trichophyton tonsurans and 80% against Epidermophyton flocosum, while the GPE showed 27% and 74%, PO showed 42% and 69%, and BAKO showed 78% and 70% activity against Trichophyton tonsurans and Epidermophyton flocosum, respectively. The bioactive compounds in these extracts were analyzed through Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy.